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Tunisians voted Sunday in their first presidential election since the 2011 revolution that sparked the Arab Spring, in a ballot set to round off an often fraught transition to democracy. The favourite among 27 candidates was former premier Beji Caid Essebsi, an 87-year-old veteran whose anti-Islamist Nidaa Tounes party won a parliamentary election last month. Others vying for the presidency included outgoing President Moncef Marzouki, several ministers who served under ousted dictator Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, leftwinger Hamma Hammami, business magnate Slim Riahi and a lone woman, magistrate Kalthoum Kannou. Whatever the outcome many Tunisians saw the election as a milestone in the history of the North African country, where for the first time they could freely choose their president. "This election is very important. It's the culmination of the revolution and something that we really should not pass up," said an electoral observer who gave his name only as Moez. Bechir Yahyaoui could hardly control his emotions as he voted in the Tunis district of Hay el-Khadhra, saying that for once he was "voting for who I want, with no pressure, no bribes". "Before (under Ben Ali) you had to go and vote, regardless of the outcome. This time the election is free and transparent," he said. But voting appeared slack and three hours after polling stations opened at 0700 GMT, officials estimated turnout at only 12 percent. Some 5.3 million people were eligible to vote, with tens of thousands of police and troops deployed to guarantee security amid fears Islamist militants might seek to disrupt polling day. Polling was restricted to just five hours in about 50 localities near the Algerian border, where armed groups are active, while polls elsewhere were due to close at 1700 GMT. A run-off vote will be held at the end of December if no candidate secures an absolute majority. Prime Minister Mehdi Jomaa hailed the vote. "It's a historic day, the first presidential election in Tunisia held under advanced democratic norms," Jomaa said. "God willing, it will be a great festival of democracy." Tunisia has won international plaudits for largely steering clear of the violence, repression and lawlessness of other Arab Spring countries such as neighbouring Libya. - [CENSORED]ure at stake - Until the revolution, Tunisia knew only two presidents -- Habib Bourguiba, the "father of independence" from France in 1956, and Ben Ali, who deposed him in a 1987 coup. To prevent the emergence of another dictatorship, presidential powers have been restricted under a new constitution, with executive prerogatives transferred to a premier drawn from parliament's top party. Frontrunner Essebsi ran on a campaign of "state prestige", a slogan with wide appeal to Tunisians anxious for an end to instability. Supporters argue only he can stand up to the Islamists who first held power in the post-Ben Ali era, but critics charge he is out to restore the old regime, having served under both former presidents. "Long live Tunisia," Essebsi said as he cast his ballot at a polling station in a Tunis suburb, where he was among the first to vote. Marzouki, who has been hammering home the argument that he is the only leader capable of preserving the gains of the uprising, voted in the afternoon near the city of Sousse, south of Tunis. A group of protesters demonstrated against his bid for re-election but were kept at bay by police, an AFP reporter said. Critics have accused Marzouki of having forged a pact "with the devil" in 2011 when he joined a coalition with the moderate Islamist party Ennahda. Ennahda, which came second in the parliamentary election, did not put up a candidate and invited its members "to elect a president who will guarantee democracy". "The polls are an important turning point for Tunisia, the outcome of a whole process that will allow Tunisians to decide their [CENSORED]ure," said veterinary professor Jamel Shemli. Whoever wins, tackling the faltering economy will be a top priority, with unemployment, a leading cause of the revolution, running at 15 percent.

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Nicotine is the addictive drug in tobacco smoke that causes smokers to continue to smoke. Addicted smokers need enough nicotine over a day to ‘feel normal’ – to satisfy cravings or control their mood. How much nicotine a smoker needs determines how much smoke they are likely to inhale, no matter what type of cigarette they smoke. Along with nicotine, smokers inhale about 7,000 other chemicals in cigarette smoke. Many of these chemicals come from burning tobacco leaf. Some of these compounds are chemically active and trigger profound and damaging changes in the body. Tobacco smoke contains over 60 known cancer-causing chemicals. Smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many diseases and reducing health in general. Dangerous chemicals in tobacco smoke The most damaging components of tobacco smoke are: Tar – this is the collective term for the various particles suspended in tobacco smoke. The particles contain chemicals, including several cancer-causing substances (carcinogens). Tar is sticky and brown, and stains teeth, fingernails and lung tissue. Tar contains the carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene. Carbon monoxide – this odourless gas is fatal in large doses because it takes the place of oxygen in the blood. Each red blood cell contains a protein called haemoglobin that transports oxygen molecules around the body. However, carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin better than oxygen. In response, the body makes more red blood cells to carry the oxygen it needs, but it makes the blood thicker. This means that when the body demands more oxygen during exercise, less oxygen reaches the brain, heart, muscles and other organs. Hydrogen cyanide – the lungs contain tiny hairs (cilia) that help to clean the lungs by moving foreign substances out. Hydrogen cyanide stops this lung clearance system from working properly, which means the poisonous chemicals in tobacco smoke can build up inside the lungs. Other chemicals in smoke that damage the lungs include hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, organic acids, phenols and oxidising agents. Oxidizing chemicals – these highly reactive chemicals (which include free radicals) can damage the heart muscles and blood vessels. They react with cholesterol, leading to the build-up of fatty material on artery walls. Their actions lead to heart disease, stroke and blood vessel disease. Metals – tobacco smoke contains dangerous metals including arsenic, cadmium and lead. Several of these metals are carcinogenic. Radioactive compounds – tobacco smoke contains radioactive compounds that are known to be carcinogenic. Effects of smoking tobacco on the body Inhaling tobacco smoke causes damage to many of the body’s organs and systems. Effects of smoking on the respiratory system The effects of tobacco smoke on the respiratory system include: irritation of the trachea (windpipe) and larynx (voice box) reduced lung function and breathlessness due to swelling and narrowing of the lung airways and excess mucus in the lung passages impairment of the lungs’ clearance system, leading to the build-up of poisonous substances, which results in lung irritation and damage increased risk of lung infection and symptoms such as coughing and wheezing permanent damage to the air sacs of the lungs. Effects of smoking on the circulatory system The effects of tobacco smoke on the circulatory system include: raised blood pressure and heart rate constriction (tightening) of blood vessels in the skin, resulting in a drop in skin temperature less oxygen carried by the blood during exercise ‘stickier’ blood, which is more prone to clotting damage to the lining of the arteries, which is thought to be a contributing factor to atherosclerosis (the build-up of fatty deposits on the artery walls) reduced blood flow to extremities (fingers and toes) increased risk of stroke and heart attack due to blockages of the blood supply. Effects of smoking on the immune system The effects of tobacco smoke on the immune system include: greater susceptibility to infections such as pneumonia and influenza more severe and longer-lasting illnesses lower levels of protective antioxidants (such as vitamin C), in the blood. Effects of smoking on the musculoskeletal system The effects of tobacco smoke on the musculoskeletal system include: tightening of certain muscles reduced bone density. Effects of smoking on the sexual organs The effects of tobacco smoke on the male body include an increased risk for: lower sperm count higher percentage of deformed sperm genetic damage to sperm impotence, which may be due to the effects of smoking on blood flow and damage to the blood vessels of the penis. The effects of tobacco smoke on the female body include: reduced fertility menstrual cycle irregularities or absence of menstruation menopause reached one or two years earlier increased risk of cancer of the cervix greatly increased risk of stroke and heart attack if the smoker is aged over 35 years and taking the oral contraceptive pill. Other effects of smoking on the body Other effects of tobacco smoke on the body include: irritation and inflammation of the stomach and intestines increased risk of painful ulcers along the digestive tract reduced ability to smell and taste premature wrinkling of the skin higher risk of blindness gum disease (periodontitis). Effects of smoking on babies The effects of maternal smoking on an unborn baby include: increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth and premature birth low birth weight, which may have a lasting effect of the growth and development of children. Low birth weight is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, being overweight and diabetes in adulthood increased risk of cleft palate and cleft lip paternal smoking can also harm the fetus if the non-smoking mother is exposed to second-hand smoke. If a parent continues to smoke during their baby’s first year of life, the child has an increased risk of ear infections, respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and meningococcal disease. Diseases caused by long-term smoking A lifetime smoker is at high risk of developing a range of potentially lethal diseases, including: cancer of the lung, mouth, nose, larynx, tongue, nasal sinus, oesophagus, throat, pancreas, bone marrow (myeloid leukaemia), kidney, cervix, ovary, ureter, liver, bladder, bowel and stomach lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which includes obstructive bronchiolitis and emphysema coronary artery disease, heart disease, heart attack and stroke ulcers of the digestive system osteoporosis and hip fracture poor blood circulation in feet and hands, which can lead to pain and, in severe cases, gangrene and amputation. Where to get help Your doctor Your pharmacist Quitline Tel. 13 QUIT (13 7848) Things to remember Many of the 7,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke are chemically active and trigger profound and potentially fatal changes in the body. Smoking harms nearly every organ in the body.. You might also be interested in: Early death - how to reduce your risk. Passive smoking. Smoking - quitting tips. Smoking - the financial cost. Smoking - weight gain and quitting. Smoking and eye disease. Smoking and heart disease. Smoking tobacco is deadly.

Alcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and generally refers to alcohol addiction, which is the compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of the drinker's health, personal relationships, and social standing. It is medically considered a disease, specifically an addictive illness. In psychiatry several other terms have been used, specifically "alcohol abuse", "alcohol dependence," and "alcohol use disorder" which have slightly different definitions. Alcohol misuse has the potential to damage almost every organ in the body, including the brain. The cumulative toxic effects of chronic alcohol abuse can cause both medical and psychiatric problems One who has alcoholism is called an alcoholic. The American Medical Association considers alcoholism as a disease and supports a classification that includes both physical and mental components. The biological mechanisms that cause alcoholism are not well understood. Social environment, stress, mental health, family history, age, ethnic group, and gender all influence the risk for the conditionSignificant alcohol intake produces changes in the brain's structure and chemistry, though some alterations occur with minimal use of alcohol over a short term period, such as tolerance and physical dependence. These changes maintain the person with alcoholism's compulsive inability to stop drinking and result in alcohol withdrawal syndrome if the person stops. Identifying alcoholism may be difficult for those affected because of the social stigma associated with the disease that causes people with alcoholism to avoid diagnosis and treatment for fear of shame or social consequences. The evaluation responses to a group of standardized questioning is a common method of diagnosis. These can be used to identify harmful drinking patterns, including alcoholism.In general, problem drinking is considered alcoholism when the person continues to drink despite experiencing social or health problems caused by drinking Treatment of alcoholism takes several steps. Because of the medical problems that can be caused by withdrawal, alcohol detoxification should be carefully controlled. One common method involves the administration of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam. People with alcoholism also sometimes have other addictions which may complicate this step. After detoxification, other support such as group therapy or self-help groups are used to help the person remain sober. Thombs (1999) states according to behavioural sciences alcoholism is described as a “maladaptive behaviour”. He explains this must not be confused with “misbehaviour”. Behavioural scientists explain that addicts have a behaviour pattern that may lead to destructive consequences for themselves, their families and society. This does not label addicts as bad or irresponsible Compared with men, women are more sensitive to alcohol's harmful physical, cerebral, and mental effects In 1979, an expert World Health Organization committee discouraged the use of "alcoholism" in medicine, preferring the category of "alcohol dependence syndrome".In the 19th and early 20th centuries, alcohol dependence in general was called dipsomania, but that term now has a much more specific meaning. People with alcoholism are often called "alcoholics". Many other terms, some of them insulting or informal, have been used throughout history. The World Health Organization estimates that there are 140 million people with alcoholism worldwide

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